篇一：词汇学中文版
第一章
词汇与词汇学的基本概念
词汇学学习之初，有必要去澄清一些关于词和词汇的基本概念。词语word是一个难以捉摸的概念，需要在开始就认真关注。发音和意义之间的关系，声音和形式之间的关系，词语和词汇之间的关系。另外，我们将注意一些关于词汇分类的共识的规则，并且在本章一定程度上研究每类词语。
1.1一个词是什么？
词语是什么？多年来已经引起了语言学家的关注。争议较大。尽管已经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。学者们仍然没有在词语的定义上达成一致。
当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。在这个角度，一个词可以被定义为平印在或者写在纸上的字母的有意义的集合。当根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的发音器官自由的发出的。根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单位。语法学家，则认为一个词是在句中起作用的自由形式。等等。总结起来，词语的定义包含以下几点：
（1）一个最小的自由形态
（2）一个发音的集合体
（3）一个意义单位
（4）能独自影响句子的形式
因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。”
词语可以是简单词或者合成词，然而全部必须服从这些标准。Man和fine是简单词，但是他们都有读音，意义和句法意义。每个都能单独出现在句子中。自然他们都是词。也有像是misfortune和management这样的复合词，他们都是多音节词，可以用来作主语，宾语和预示性词语。尽管misfortune可以被进一步分为mis和fortune，前者不能作为词单独使用。相似的，management可以被分成manage和ment，但是后者不能自由使用。Blackmail能被分为black和mail，而且都能作为独立的句子单位使用，然而词的意思绝对不是两个部分的组合。Black是颜色，针对white，mail指示“被邮局运送的东西”，然而当它们放在一起，组合形式意味着“强迫，利用不光彩的秘密要人送钱或行动作为答复。”因此blackmail是一个不同的词。
1.2词汇
所有一种语言中的词构成了它的词汇。术语“词汇”使用在不同的地方。他不仅用来代表一种语言中的单词总数，他还能代表所有特定历史时期的单词，例如古代英语词汇，中古词汇和现代英语词汇。我们也用他来代表所有特定方言的词汇，一本书的词汇，一种学术的词汇和一个人的词汇。英语是高度发展的世界语言之一。自然词汇是最大最丰富的之一。今天的英语笼统估计词汇量超过100万。
1.3读音和意义
词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。”一只狗被称作“狗”，并不是因为那读音和三个字母能自动的指示那讨论中的动物。它只是象征性的。它们之间的关系是约定俗成的，因为同种语言的人们赞成用一串声音说那动物。在不同的语言中相同的概念可以用不同的声音表达。Woman，在德语中是frau，在法语中是femme。在中国话中是funu。另一方面，相同的读音也表示不同的意义，如mi：t用来表示会议，肉和边界。骑士和夜晚，尽管代表不同的事物，仍然有相同的读音。
1.4读音和形式
通常认为，自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。自然书写形式应该和口语形式相一致。换而言之，发音应该和形式相一致。这在英语中是相当正确的在早期也就是古代英语中。那时候的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语。随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。
Alphabet字母表
另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。
第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。在早年拼写差别不是问题，因为人们不常看印刷体，而且拼写不像今天这样固定。结果，没人能够肯定一些英语词汇该如何拼写。有时候人们故意把拼写改变为一条直线或者只是为了方便识记。在印刷术传到英国以前，每样东西都是手写的。那些书写员，那些靠为他人写作谋生的人经常繁忙工作，为了应付国王，主教和商人的需要。一个问题是几个字母用简短垂直的笔画书写象是iuvmw和n都看上去很相像。因此，他们的书写体引起了误解。为了部分解决这个问题，他们把mnv之前的u改成o.这就是sum cum wuman wunder变成some come woman wonder monk的原因。某些时候，书记员可能认为没有单词应该以u或者v结尾。因此，及时的，e被加入那样的词语象是live have true 但是没有发音。
At some point在某个时候
到1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写。标准化使得拼写不容改变。字典在拼写终结中得到好处。同时，读音继续如往常变化，以此带来了更多的不同。
最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。当英语从其他语言中借鉴单词时，它同样借用了拼写。早期的借词被同化，后来的则不再遵守英语的发音和拼写规则，例如……
英语的书写因此是发音形式不完善的代表。历史上一次又一次，一些英美学者尝试去改革英语的拼写，但是不成功。尽管差别，至少百分之八十的单词读音和拼写一致。就算是那些拼写不规范的也有更多的规律和用处，超出我们的认识。例如，象是hymn condemn bomb他们的最后一个字母是不发音的。但是他们扩展为更长的单词，沉默的字母就要发音，hymnal
1.5词类
英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标准或者不同的目的进行分类。根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。
1.5.1基础词和非基础词
基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。这些词有明显的特征。
1所有的民族特征。
基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词：
自然现象：雨雪火，水，太阳月亮春夏风山
人的身体和亲属：头足手脸父母兄弟姐妹儿子女儿
动植物：橡树松树草梨苹果树马牛羊猫狗小鸡
动作，尺寸，范围，状态：来去吃听打带好邪恶老年轻热冷重白黑
数词代词介词连接词：一十百我你你的，谁，在里，在外，在下，和但直到如同
这些词不能被英语会话者回避。不能不考虑词源教育专业地区文化等等。
2.稳定性
基础词已经被使用若干世纪，例如人火山水太阳月亮。由于它们代表生活需要的普遍事物，它们很可能保持不变。稳定性只是相对的，实际上基础词正在进行着变化。象是弓箭马车骑士，过去是常见的，现在都删出了词库，同时象是“电，机器，汽车，飞机，微机无线电电视”这些代表新事物和现代生活方式的词，已经进入了词库，但是这个变化是缓慢的，更多的是加入而不是清除。
3.生产力
基础词大多是词根。它们每个都能单独使用同时可以和其他词根或词缀一起构成新词：例如足：片段，足球，人行道，页脚，脚步，立足的，未婚的，愚昧的，男仆，立足点，脚印和许多其他的。同样的，dog是忠实的，狗性，狗车，便宜，折角，平局，混战，狗窝狗刨小憩这些词的父亲，只是说了一点。
4.意义分歧
术语基础词的赐予经常拥有一个以上的意思因为它们中的大多数都已经发生了意义变化根据使用，变得一词多义。一个例子将满足解释的需要动词take可能是说：从一地搬运到其他地方；未经允许或者错误的移动或使用，获得抓住，独立自强，用手抓住，愿意接受，忍受，需要（特定数量的时间）；完成相关的行动，测试或者测量，写下，有预想效果或者工作成功。
5.搭配能力
基础词中许多在一些设定表达，习惯用法，谚语和类似的东西中出现。例子是很多的。以心为例，变心，不在心上，金子的心，在心上。伤害心，穿过心，呼喊心声，吃掉心，心在嗓子眼，心和手，心和灵魂，心上下浮动，挂心，把心挂在袖子上，全心全意等等。当然，不是所有的基础词都有这些特点。代词和数词有全国使用范围和稳定性，但是无歧义，生产和组合能力有限。因此，全民性是区别通用词和其他词的最重要特征。
没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核心。它们包括下面：
1.术语。包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语，例如在医学上：光扫描，肝炎，消化不良，青霉素；在数学上：代数，三角学，微积分；音乐上，交响乐，管弦乐队，奏鸣曲，协奏曲，教育上：视听教学，自休大学，微型教学等等。
2.行话。用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流，例如在商业：底线是不能逃避的暗示，无法避免的结果，最终版本。“。垒球数字是说估计，讨价碎片是说被谈判中一方控制的好处，在马赛中：抓他回来是说不让他赢，抓他进来是说强迫马匹在比赛开始跑到后面以便在最后提速；在医学中：多疑是指怀疑多虑，人格面貌是指人的人格面貌。Hypo指皮下注射器；在战争中：buster是炮弹。总体来说，圈外人理解这些词有困难。
3.俚语粗话 属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言，（包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot,所有这些词汇都和特定的人群联系或者大部分能被特定人群使用。特定词被标示为“俚语”不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法。面团和面包，例如，是标准的当他们作为食物术语。但是当标示俚语时则标示金钱。类似的，“草”和“壶”相应的有标准或者正式的使用意义，就是“植物的类型”和“烹饪器皿”,但是作为俚语使用为“大麻”。那样的词象是海狸（女孩），吸烟的，熊（警察），捉住（谈话），叫喊（呼叫）收到（理解），x光（雷达）都是俚语。“头”的概念可以用“坚果”“圆屋顶”“上面的”“豆子”“大块”表示，诸如此类。同样的，“喝醉”可以用超过三百个单词表示，象是“提高”“愉快”“高兴”“舒服”“沸腾”“草率”“紧张”“敲掉”“蓝眼”“薯条”“瘫痪”“腌制”“僵硬”“击昏”。
这些例子说明很多俚语都是通过改变或延伸现有单词的意义决定的，尽管一些俚语大体来说是新成员。俚语被广泛使用。有时几乎每个人都使用俚语，还有一些人经常使用大量俚语。那些不去办公室或者很少过正常生活的人，还有那些经常和亲近的朋友一起而不是和同事或者极少的熟人在一起的人，使用俚语最多，因为俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人。正如一些人所说的，俚语避免了自负的感觉。他是“卷起袖子立刻能够工作的语言”。
4.黑话 通常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人很难理解他。例如“罐头起子”（万能钥匙）蘸（偷钱包）说服者（匕首）。
5.方言词 是争论中的方言者所用的词。例如，“美丽”（澳大利亚英语：很好的）“鸡”（澳英语：小鸡）“狂妄”（澳英：小农夫）“站”（澳英：大农场）“老的”（苏格兰英：老的），bluid（苏格兰英语：血）“咕咕”（苏格兰
英语：奶牛）“轭”（苏格兰英语：家）lough（爱尔兰英语：湖）“沼泽”（爱尔兰英语：沼泽）
6.古语 是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他们主要出现在古诗，法律文件，宗教作品和演讲中。这里有例子：thou（你）ye（复数你们）thee（宾格你）wilt（will）brethren（兄弟）troth（宣誓）quoth（说）aught（任何事）hereof（于此，不是至此）从此（从那）其中（in what）。
7.新词 是新建立的词或者表达，或者已经采用新意的词。这里是从12000词中找到的例子：
“微电子学“：电子学分支处理综合管路问题。
“未来学”：在现代趋势上针对未来可能性进行的研究
“aids”：获得免疫缺乏综合征
“电子邮件”：电子邮件，通过计算机系统进行的信息传送。
“internet”：连接商业和私人用户的国际计算机网络。
异化：以服药的形式退出现实和社会。（自杀）
1.5.2内容词和功能词
根据概念，词语可以分为内容词和功能词。内容词显示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词。形容词，副词和数词。表示物体，现象，动作，品质，状态，程度，数量等等。“地”“云”“跑”“走”“明亮”“黑暗”“决不”“经常”“五”“十二月”都是内容词。
功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类，例如on of upon and but do be a 和其他。 内容词，构成了英语词汇的主体，是数量多的。并且那数量还在增长，然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一部分，保持稳定。然而，功能词平均在表达上做了更多的工作，和内容词相比。根据stuart等人所说，九个功能词，就是and be have it of the to will you占据英语表达的四分之一。这被下面的例子证明是合理的。总共二十七个单词，只有九个是内容词，其他都是功能词。
和孩子们一起玩有趣。
肯定是他们忘记了地址。
我看那电影次数越多，我越喜欢它。
1.5.3本地词和外来词
直到词源被关注，英语单词可以划分为本地词和外来词。本地词在五世纪由日尔曼人带到英国，盎格鲁，撒克逊，还有朱特人，因此被认为是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间，但是他们构成了基本词储的主流，并且处在语言的核心。因此，真正的基础词储也是真正的
使用，在任何时候使用。因此，他们没有独特的特点。这可以在同义词之间的比较中看出。
被用E标示的是本地词，其他的都是借词。风格上，本地词没有正式和非正式之分，然而从法国和拉丁来的借词是文雅的和学术的，因此适合在正式风格中使用。
2. 使用频繁
在日常听说中本地词最常使用。关于借词的使用比例或许正好相反。正在使用的本地词大约占百分之七十到九十。这数字可以被下面的资料证明：
这些资料不能用于所有的使用情况，并且对学术领域和科学开发，在那些领域更多的法语词拉丁词和希腊词被使用。
从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”英语是沉重的借贷者，已经采用了来自世界上其他
主要语言的词。据估计，英语借词组成了现代英语词汇的百分之八十。正如“百科全书美国历史”中所说，英语有沉重的借贷。在任何词典中百分之八十的词条是借词。英语以明显的词汇复杂和异类著称，因为它广泛的借词。Baugh把英国词汇比作“世界性的词汇”，揭示了英语词汇的本质。根据同化程度和借词的风格，我们可以把借词分成四类。
1. 同化词
居民词是过去早期借词，现在很好的溶入和英语。换句话说他们遵守英语的发音和拼写方法。其中一些如此成功的同化以至于只有经过训练的专业人士才能晓得他们的源头。这样的词是从拉丁语希腊语法语和斯堪的纳维亚语中来的早期借词。例如“港口”从portus来，cup从cuppa来，shift从skipta来（古代诺思语）shirt从skyrta来，change从changier来，pork从porc来。
2. 非同化词
侨语是保留了原始发音和拼写的借词。这些词可以立刻被识别出源头在国外。象是decon blitzkrieg，“磕头”“市场”“王侯”“情况疑问”“乐曲”“埃米尔”，他们都是去命名一些东西。
3.译借词。
翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。那样的词也能划分。
4. 借义词
这类词不是参考形式借来，但是他们的意义是借来的。换句话说，英语为现有的词借来了新的意义。用dream来举例。这词最初表示“高兴”“音乐”，它现在的意义是来自于挪威语。“先锋”曾经一度表示“探索者”或者“作探索工作的人”，现在用了新意义“少年先锋队成员”，从俄国借鉴。Dumb的“愚蠢”含义来自于德语“dumm”。同样的，fresh已经在德语frech的影响下采用了“无礼”的意义。
第二章 英语词汇的发展
在单词研究中，知道词汇的源头和发展是重要的。词汇随着语言而发展。英语不是英国群岛上原住民的语言。但是它从哪里来？为何它被认为是英语？通过什么方式和其他语言相联系？最初居民的词汇有多少？它是如何发展成为现在这样一个大的词汇量？这一章将对所有这些问题做一解答。V: Isle岛屿
2.1印欧语系
假定世界上有将近三千（一些人说是五千）种语言，可以在词储和语法相似的基础上分为将近300个语系。印欧语系是其中之一。它包括欧洲，近东，和印度的大多数语言。史前印欧语系的父语被认为是一种高度转折的语言。在这语言中一个给定单词的不同形式表示在句子中它和其他词的关系。当这种语群离开发源的大陆。相信是欧洲东部的某地，每个语群的语言沿着不同的道路发展，很多和现在美国和澳洲英语与英国的英语区别相似。经过漫长的时间完成分离独立的任务，这些同一种语言的不同方言改变了很多，以至于变成了独立的语言。一种语言的使用者不能被其他语言的使用者所理解。
现存的语言展示不同程度的彼此类似。这种相似程度或多或少受他们地理位置分布的影响。它们因此被分成了十个主要的语群，那些语群被再次划分入东方体系：斯拉夫语，印度伊朗语，亚美尼亚语，阿尔巴尼亚语；西方体系：凯尔特语，意大利语，希腊语系，日耳曼语系。
在东方体系中，亚美尼亚语和阿尔巴尼亚语是相对仅存的现代语。斯拉夫语包括一些现代语，像是普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄语。在印度伊朗语系中我们有波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语，最后三种来自于已经死亡的语言sankirt。
在西方体系中，希腊语是来自于希腊的现代语。在凯尔特语系中，我们发现了苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布里多尼语等等。有五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系，中间的接续语言是拉丁语。日耳曼语系包括哟四种北欧语言，挪威语， 冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语，这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言。然后还有德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语。
V: Scottish苏格兰Irish爱尔兰Welsh威尔士Breton布里多尼Romance罗曼语Portuguese葡萄牙语Spanish西班牙语Roumanian罗马尼亚Intermediate中间的Consist组成Norwegian挪威语Icelandic冰岛的Danish
篇二：英语词汇学教程参考答案
《英语词汇学教程》参考答案
(注：参考答案仅供参考。有些题目的答案并非是唯一的)
Chapter 1
1. The three definitions agree that lexicology studies words. Yet, they have different focuses. Definition 1 focuses on the meaning and uses of words, while definition 2 on the overall structure and history. Definition 3 regards lexicology as a branch of linguistics and focuses on the semantic structure of the lexicon. It is interesting to note that the three definitions uses different names for the object of study. For Definition 1, it is words, for Definition 2 the vocabulary of a language, and for Definition 3 the lexicon.
2. (1) They can go into the room, and if they like, shut the door.
(2) You boys are required to give in your homework before 10 o‘clock.(3) I watch the football match happily and find it very interesting.
3. (1) when it follows ?-t‘ and ?-d‘, it is pronounced as [id];
(2) when it follows voiceless consonants, it is pronounced as [t];
(3) when it follows voiced consonants and vowels, it is pronounced as [d].
4. (1)They are words that can be included in a semantic field of ―tree‖.
(2)They represent the forms of the verb ―fly‖ and have a common meaning.(3)They belong to a lexical field of ?telephone communication‘..
(4)They are synonyms, related to human visual perception. Specifically, they denote various
kinds of ―looking‖.
5. (a) ?blackboard: a board with a dark smooth surface, used in schools for writing with chalk (the primary stress in on black) ; ?blackbird: a particular kind of bird, which may not necessarily be black in colour (the primary stress in on black); ?greyhound: a slender, swift dog with keen sight (the primary stress in on black), ?White House: the residence of the US President in Washington (the primary stress in on black). 0
(b) black ?board: any board which is black in colour (both words receive primary stress); black ?bird: any bird which is black in colour (both words receive primary stress); grey ?hound: any hound that is grey in colour (both words receive primary stress); ?white ?house: any house that is painted white (both words receive primary stress).
6. There are 44 orthographic words, i.e. sequences of letters bounded by space. There are 24 open class words and 20 closed class words.
7. (a) The ?bull‘ is literal, referring to a male bovine animal.
(b) ?Take the bull by the horn‘ is an idiom, meaning ?(having the courage to) deal with someone
or something directly.
(c) ?Like a bull in a china shop‘ is an idiom, meaning doing something with too much
enthusiasm or too quickly or carelessly in a way that may damage things or upset someone. (d) A ?bull market‘ is one where prices rise fast because there is a lot of buying of shares in
anticipation of profits.
8. cup, mug, glass, tumbler, tankard, goblet, bowl, beaker, wineglass, beer glass, sherry glassThey can be organized in a number of ways, for example, by the drinks the vessel is used for.
Non-alcoholic: glass, tumbler, cup, mug, beaker, bowl Beer: beer glass, tankard Wine: wineglass, goblet Spirits: sherry glass
Chapter 2
1. Lexeme is an abstract linguistic unit with different variants, for example, sing as against sang,
sung.
Morpheme is the ultimate grammatical constituent, the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example, moralizers is an English word composed of four morphemes: moral+lize+er+s. Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph, such as cat, chair, -ing, -s, etc.
Allomorphs are the alternate phonetic forms of the same morpheme, for example, [t], [d] and [id] are allomorphs of the past tense morpheme in English.
2. quick-ly,down-stair-s, four-th,poison-ous,weak-en,world-wide,inter-nation-al-ly,in-ject,pro-trude
3. island, cranberry,
4.(a)[ ?](b)[ -ai]
5. (1) –?s, -s(2) -est, -s(3) –ing(4) –ed
6. The connotations are as follows:
(1) slang, carrying the connotation of reluctance, (2)informal, carrying the connotation that the speaker is speaking to a child, (3) beastie is used to a small animal in Scotland, carrying the connotation of disgust, (4) carrying the connotation of formalness, (5) carrying the connotation of light-heartedness.
7. { -?m; ～- n; ～- n; ～-i: ～-s; ～-z; ～-iz}
8. court: polysemy dart: polysemy
fleet: homonymy jam: homonymypad: homonymy steep: homonymystem: homonymy stuff: polysemywatch: polysemy
9. (1)—(f), (2)—(g), (3)—(c),(4)—(e),(5)—(a),(6)—(d),(7)—(b)
10.(1) unpractical (2) break
(3) impractical(4) rout(5) pedals(6) Route(7) raze
Chapter 3
1. The history of English can be divided into four periods: the Old, Middle, Early middle and
Modern English periods.
In Old English period, there is a frequent use of coinages known as ?kennings‘, which refers to vivid figurative descriptions often involving compounds. The absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords force people to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements. The latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ?loan translations‘. Grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed by the use of inflectional endings. And Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.
In Middle English period, English grammar and vocabulary changed greatly. In grammar, English changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In vocabulary English was characterized by the loss of a large part of the Old English word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.
In Early Modern English period, English vocabulary grew very fast through extensive borrowing and expansion of word-formation patterns. And there was a great many semantic changes, as old words acquire new meanings.
Modern English is characterized with three main features of unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary, the assertion of American English as a dominant variety of the language, and the emergence of other varieties known as ?New Englishes‘.
2. appeareth in (a) becomes appeared in (b), and dreame becomes dream. The passive were
departed becomes the active had gone. With the change of word forms, (b) looks simple morphologically.
3. barf: American slang kerchief: Frenchmutton: French
cadaver: Latin goober: Kongo leviathan: Latin ginseng: Chinese taffy: North American kimono: Japanese
whisky: Irish caddy: Malay sphere: Latin algebra: Arabicgiraffe: African
4. train: meaning changed from the trailing part of a gown to a wide range of extended
meanings.
deer: meaning narrowed from ?beast‘ or ?animal‘ to ?a particular kind of animal‘
knight: meaning ameliorated from ?boy, manservant’ to ?a man in the UK who has been given an honor of knighthood‘
meat: meaning narrowed down from ?food‘ to ?the edible flesh of animals and the edible part of fruit‘.
hose: meaning extended from ?leg covering‘ to ?a long tube for carrying water‘.
5. sell: specializedhound: specialized
starve: specialized wife: specialized loaf: specialized 6.
Chapter 4
1. read+-i+-nessdis-+courage+-ing kind+heart+-edun-+doubt+-ed+-ly stock+room+-s pre-+pack+-age+-ed
2. book: books(n.); books(v.), booking, booked, booked
forget: forgets, forgetting, forgot, forgotten
short: shorter, shortest
snap: snaps, snapping, snapped
take: takes, taking, took, taken goose: geese
heavy: heavier, heaviest
3. –ish: meaning ?having the nature of , like‘
de-: meaning ?the opposite of‘ -ify: meaning ?make, become‘ -dom: means ?the state of ‘
il-(im-/in-): meaning ?the opposite of, not‘ -able: meaning ?that can or must be‘ mis-: meaning ?wrongly or badly‘
-sion(-tion):meaning ?the state/process of‘ pre-: meaning ?prior to‘
-ment: meaning ?the action of‘ re-: meaning ?again‘
under-: meaning ?not enough‘
-al: meaning ?the process or state of‘
4. a. They are endocentric compounds. They have the ―Adj + N‖ structure, in which adjectives
are used to modify nouns ?line, line, neck, room‘. Hotline means ?a telephone number that people can call for information‘. Mainline means ?an important railway line between two cities‘. Redneck means ?a person from the southern US‘. Darkroom means ?a room with very little in it, used for developing photographs‘.
b. They are endocentric compounds. They have the ―N + N‘ structure. Bookshelf means ?a shelf for keeping books‘. Breadbasket means ?a container for serving bread‘. Mailbox means ?a box for putting letters in when they delivered to a house‘. Wineglass means ?a glass for drinking wine‘.
c. They are endocentric compounds. They have the ―N + N‘ structure. Letterhead means ?the head of a letter (i.e. the name and address of an organization printed at the top of a letter)‘. Roadside means ?the area at the side of a road‘. Keyhole means ?the hole in a lock for putting the key in‘. Hilltop means ?the top of a hill‘.
d. They are exocentric compounds. Dropout means ?a person who leaves school before they have finished their studies. Go-between means ?a person who takes messages between people‘. Turnout means ?the number of people who come to an event‘. Standby means ?a person or thing that can always be used if needed‘.
e. They are endocentric compounds. They have the ―Adj + N-ed‖ structure, in which adjectives are used to modify the N-ed.
f. They are endocentric compounds. They have the ―N + Adj‖ structure, meaning As Adj As N.
5. in-: not, the opposite of
篇三：英语词汇学教程期末总结
1、 what is lexicology?
Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language. It deals not only with simple words, but also with complex and compound words.
2、 morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components. In morphology, morpheme is a basic concept. Morphemes are considered as the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words. Semantics is often defined as the study of meaning. Semantics is usually approached from one of two perspectives: philosophical or linguistic. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words. First…second…third P2
3、 lexicography is closely related to the words in a given language. It involves the writing and compilation of dictionaries, especially dealing with the principles that underlie the process of compiling and editing dictionaries.
4、 Major features of words:
1). a word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.
2). a word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.
3). the word is an uninterruptible unit.
4). a word has to do with its social function.
5). a word may consist of one or more morphemes.
6). Words are part of the large communication system we call language.
7). A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.
5、 Lexical words: are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and so on.
6、 The morphemes are the ultimate constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.
One morpheme: boy, desire, say
Two morphemes: boy+ish, desire+able
Three morphemes: boy+ish+ness, desire+able+ity
Four morphemes: gentle+men+li+ness, un+desire+able+ity
7、 Phonemes, which are the smallest working units of sound per se, build up into morphemes, a morpheme is composed of one or more phonemes.
8、 Lexical item as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants.
9、 Types of morphemes:
1). Bound morphemes and free morphemes
2). Derivational and inflectional morphemes
10、seven types of meaning:
conceptual meaning,
connotative meaning,
social meaning,
affective meaning,
reflected meaning,
collocative meaning,
thematic meaning.
11、conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.
12、connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to , over and above its purely conceptual content. Connotations vary from age or age, from society to society, and from individual to individual within the same speech community.
13、roots tend to have a core meaning which is in some way modified by the affix, but determining meaning is sometimes tricky.
14、polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.
15、homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.
16、purely Germanic, a large part of this vocabulary has disappeared from the language. results of the Norman Conquest and the conditions which followed that event; others were a continuation of tendencies that had begun to appear in Old English; in grammar， English vocabulary was characterized by the loss of a large part of the Old English marked its beginning. Printing played a major role in fostering the norms of spelling and pronunciation. Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform. It is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English period.
growth of scientific vocabulary; the assertion of American English as a dominant variety of the language; the emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.
17、major influences on English:
The Scandinavian influence
The Norman Conquest
The Latin influence
18、borrowing is the process of imitating a word from a foreign language and, at least partly, adapting it in sound or grammar to the native language. The word thus borrowed is called a loanword or borrowing.
19、three ways of extending the word stock: borrowing words that already exist in other languages; creating entirely new words; forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.
20、English has some built-in processes of creating words: the addition of prefixes and suffixes; blending; compounding; conversion; back formation.
21、inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words andP55看表格的例子
22、affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base. Derivation refers
to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem. Two principal kinds of affixation: prefixing and suffixing. Prefixes like un-, pre-, and dis- serve to change the meaning of words, though not usually their part of speech. Suffixes and prefixes often change the grammatical class of words.
23、compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. Characteristics : phrases on phonological, syntactic, and semantic grounds.
24、conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.
P67看 Noun-verb:……… 看P68表格 看P74表格
25、backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.
26、26、there are many different sources of idioms: every-day life; food and cooking; agricultural life; nautical life and military life; many idioms are related to parts of the body, animals, and colors.
28、idioms can be divided into three groups:
The first group has irregular form but clear meaning.
The second group has a regular form but an unclear meaning.
The third group is irregular both in form and meaning.
Two features of idioms: ambiguity and syntactic peculiarities
29、types of dictionaries:
general and specialized dictionaries
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries
electronic and print dictionaries
30、Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
All the definitions are written using the Longman defining vocabulary of just 2000 common words.
The top 3000 most frequent words in spoken and written English are highlighted to show which are the most important to know.
Whether In print, on DVD-ROM, online, via a PDA or mobile phone, the user can access language support whenever and wherever he/she wants.
31、a euphemism is a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid frightening or unpleasant subjects.
32、classification of euphemisms P122
1). Terms of foreign and/or technical origin (e.g. copulation, perspire…)
2).abbreviations (e.g. SOB for son of a bitch…)
3).abstractions and ambiguities (e.g. it for excrement…)
4).indirections (e.g. unmentionables, privates…)
5).mispronunciation (e.g. goldarnit, dadgummit…)
6).litotes or reserved understatement (e.g. not exactly thin for fat…)
7).changing nouns to modifiers (e.g. makes her look slutty for is a slut…)
8). Slang (e.g. pot for marijuana, laid for sex…)
33、slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered
standard in the speaker’s dialect or language. A slang word is often an informal and transient lexical item used by a specific social group.
34、ameliorations refer to the development of more favorable meaning for words. A development of the meaning in the opposite direction, which is perhaps more frequent, is called pejoration. P129 第一个表格
35、metaphor is very common in English. It is often considered as a variation in the expression of meanings.
《《英语词汇学教程》论文(中文版)》出自：百味书屋
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