篇一：英语国家概况完整篇复习重点
英语国家概况Chapter 1 Land and People第一章 英国的国土与人民I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。
II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征1.Geographical position of Britain: 英国的地理位置：Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands.英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336km).泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometres).讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m）斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1,085米。IV. Climate 气候1. Britain's favorable climate 英国有利的气候条件：Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range. 英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气温变化幅度小。2.The factors influence the climate in Britain:影响英国气候的因素：1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer;环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节温差的作用；2）The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate;一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气，使气温适宜；3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.北大西洋暖流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。3.Rainfall 降雨量：Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east.英国全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。 英国北部、西部雨
量过多，但是南部、东部有所缺乏。
V. The People 人口1.population distribution 人口分布：Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).英国人口约570万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人、北爱尔兰人和其他民族居民。2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish:英伦三岛民族的祖先：The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts. 英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。
3.The difference in character个性差别：The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past.威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England:英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England. 南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力。Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities. 作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。7.Immigrants: 移民：About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。
Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)第二章 英国的起源（公元前5000年—1066年）I.Early Settlers （5000BC-55BC） 早期的居民（公元前5000年—公元前55年）1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。2． At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland.约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。3． The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.约公元前700年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。4． The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. 克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞（不列颠）人的抵达。The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD) 罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年—410年）1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军朱略斯·凯撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国人处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。2. Roman’s influence on Britain. 罗马对不列颠的影响The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain?s natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.罗马人修建了许多城镇网，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督
教这门新宗教带到不列颠。3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain. 罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most important events are The Anglos-Saxons? invasion; The Viking and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest.(简要：这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。在这一部分里，主要是介绍了英国从公元446年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵，北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。
III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) 盎格鲁—撒克逊人（公元446—871年）1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons. 盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础）In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. 最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew?s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state. 早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。
IV．Viking and Danish invasions 北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。
2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions. 艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.”阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队），使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。V．The Norman Conquest (1066) 诺曼征服（公元1066年）1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death.威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England.据说，爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉，但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中，威廉打败了哈罗德军队，同时哈罗德也在此战争中战死。2．The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin.英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有一些英国人的是诺曼血统。3．The Norman Conquest and its consequences 诺曼征服及其产生的影响。The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地，将其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是，封建制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系，文明和商业得到发展，引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑。教会与罗马的联系更为密切，教会法庭与世俗法庭分离。
Chapter 3 The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)第三章 英国的形成（公元1066-1381）This is one of the most difficult parts. In this part, I will introduce some Kings in English history and their reformations. Though we have to remember a lot of things in this part, we also learn more about English history.I. Norman Rule (1066-1381) 诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）1. William's Rule （1066-1087） 威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror 在威廉统治下的英国封建制度①Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to
this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。2. King Hey II and his reforms 亨利二世国王和他的改革The ways King Hey II consolidate the monarchy. 亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。Hey II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen?s time; strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。3. The ways Hey II reform the courts and the law. 亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。King Hey II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter 《大宪章》的内容及意义Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and
(5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land. 《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：(1) 未经大议会同意，不得征税；
(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4） 伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；(5) 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。
篇二：史上超强!英语国家概况复习笔记!
英语国家概况复习笔记
Chapter 1 Land and People 英国的国土与人民
Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分
1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰.
2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国.
3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands—Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.
不列颠群岛由两个大岛［大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛］及成千上万个小岛组成.
4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.大不列颠岛上有三个政区:英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士. ①England is in the southern part of Great Britain.It is the largest, most populous section. 位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区.
②Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh. 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部.它有三大自然区：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：爱丁堡.
③Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威尔士位于大不列颠的西部.首府：加的夫
④Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域.首府：贝尔法斯特
5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain.Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading agreements.The Commonwealth has no special powers.The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.英联邦是一个自由联合体,由曾是英国殖民地而现在已经独立的国家构成.成员国之间实行经济合作,有一定的贸易协议.英联邦没有特别的权利,是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定.它成立于1931年,到1991年止已有50个成员国.
Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英国的起源
At about 700 BC the Celts began to arrive in Britain and kept coming until the arrival of the Romans.They may come originally from eastern and central Europe,now France,Belgium and southern Germany.约公元前700年,凯尔特人来到不列颠岛并一直陆续到来直到罗马人的入侵.他们可能源自东欧和中欧,即现在的法国,比利时和德国南部.They came in three main waves:the Gaels~about 600 BC;the Brythons~about 400 BC;the Belgae~about 150 BC.凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮:第一次是约公元前600年的盖尔人;第二次是约公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是约公元前150年的贝尔盖人. The Celtic tribes are the ancestors of the Highland Scots,the Irish and the Welsh,and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic.凯尔特人是山地苏格兰人,爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先,他们的语言是威尔士语和盖尔语的基础.The Celts’ religion was Druidism. 凯尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教.The Belgae were the most industrious and vigorous of the Celtic tribes.贝尔盖人是最勤奋,最精力充沛的. The Celts were practised farmers. 凯尔特人是有经验的农民. 现代英国人的基础:盎格鲁—萨克逊 (446-871) In the mid-5th century Jutes,Saxons, and Angles came to Britain.They were three Teutonic tribes.The Jutes,who fished and farmed in Jutland(now southern Denmark),came to Britain first.Then the Saxons came.They came from northern Germany,established their kingdoms in Essex, Sussex and Wessex. In the second half of the 6th century,the Angles who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. 五世纪中叶,朱特人,撒克逊人和盎格鲁人来到不列颠岛.这是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)从事打渔农耕的朱特人先到达不列颠;接着是撒克逊人,他们来自德国北部,在埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国;六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部把自己名字给了英国人的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚,麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居.
Heptarchy:During the Anglo-Saxon’s time,Britain was divided into many kingdoms,among which there were seven principal kingdoms of Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East Anglia,Mercia and Northumbria.They were given the name for Heptarchy. 在盎格鲁-撒克逊时期,英国被划分为许多王国,其中有七个主要王国:肯特,埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯,威塞克斯,东盎格利亚,麦西亚和诺森伯利来.他们被合称为七王国.
The Anglo-Saxon tribes were constantly at war with one another,each trying to get the upper hand,so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again. 盎格鲁-撒克逊部落之间不断交战,彼此都想占上风,因此王国总是分了合,合了又分
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. 盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国.
Although the Anglo-Saxons were ferocious people,they laid the foundations of the English state.Firstly,they divided the country into shires;Secondly,they devised the narrow-strip,three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century;Thirdly,they also established the manorial system.Finally,they created the Witan(council/meeting of wisemen)to advise the king,the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊人是凶猛的民族,但他们为英国国家的形成打下了基础.首先他们把国家划分为郡;其次他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪;他们还建立了采邑制;最后他们还创立了议会(贤人会议),向国王提供建议,这是现存的枢密院的基础.
The Norwegian Vikings and the Danes attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century.The Danes gained control of the north and east of England—the Danelaw.从8世纪末起,挪威海盗和丹麦人就不断袭击英格兰各地方.丹麦人控制英格兰北部和东部丹麦法区.After Alfred’s death,his successors reconquered the Danelaw.King Ethelred the Ueady tried paying the invaders to stay away.But the Danes didn’t go away but invade again. 亚尔弗雷德死后,他的继任者们重新征服了丹麦地区."未准备好者"埃塞尔雷德国王进贡给丹麦人以免被侵略,但丹麦人又再度进犯. After Ethelred’s death,Canute,the Danish leader was made English king in 1016.He proved to be a wise ruler.After his death in 1035,his sons Harold and Hardicanute reigned successively.After Hardicanute’s death the succession passed to the successor Edward the Confessor. 埃塞尔雷德死后,丹麦首领喀奴特在1016年成为了英国国王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的儿子哈罗德和哈迪喀奴特先后统治王国.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位传给了"忏悔者"爱德华. 亚尔弗雷德国王和他所做出的贡献(849-899)①Alfred was the king of Wessex and defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879亚尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王.他打败了丹麦人,并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议;②He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy”他因为建立了强大舰队,而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世;③He reorganized the Saxon army,making it more efficient他改组了撒克逊军队,使之更为高效;④He is said to have taught himself Latin and translated a Latin book into English据说他自学了拉丁语并将一本拉丁语书译成英语⑤He encouraged learning in others,established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great”他鼓励向他人求知并修建学校,并且制订法律制度.
(1066)It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, William defeated Harold in the battle of Hastings.On Christmas Day William was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey. 据说爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉,但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯战役中威廉打败了哈罗德军队.圣诞节这天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕为英格兰国王.The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William theConqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government.The Norman Conquest ended the English history of being invaded, the feudal system was completely established in England . Relations with the Continent were opened, and civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced.The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts. 公元1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件.征服者威廉没收了几乎所有土地,将其分发给他的诺曼追随者.他用强大的诺曼政府取代软弱的撒克逊人统治.诺曼征服结束了被侵略的英国历史,英格兰完全确立了封建制度:扩展了与欧洲大陆的关系;文明和商业都得到发展;引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑.教会与罗马的联系更为密切,教会法庭从世俗法庭中单独分离出来.
Chapter 3The Shaping of the Nation 英国的形成（公元1066-1381） 在威廉统治下的英国封建制度 ①Under William,the feudal system in England was completely established在威廉统治下,英国的封建制度得到完全确立;②In this system,the King owned all the land personally根据此制度,国王拥有全国所有土地;③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land’s produce威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族,条件是贵族保证服役和交租;④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country,so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king贵族的这些地产分散于各处,这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王;⑤The barons parceled out his land to the lesser nobles,knights and freemen,also in return for goods and services贵族又把土地分配给小贵族,骑士和自由民,同样要他们交租和服役;⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs在封建等级底层的是农奴;⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance,not only to their immediate lord,but also to the king英国封建制独有的特色就是,无论是土地承租人还是二佃户,都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主,而且要效忠于国王.
William replaced the Witan with the Grand Council. 威廉用大议会取代了贤人会议. In order to have a reliable record of all his lands,his tenants and their possessions,William sent his clerks to compile a property record known as Domesday Book,which was completed in 1086. 为了使所有的土地,佃户和他们的财产记录可靠,威廉派官员编了一本财产清册,称为?末日审判书? 大宪章?的内容及意义Also known as the Magna Carta,Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons.?大宪章?是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的. It consists of 63 clauses. Its important provisions are as follows?大宪章?共有63条:①no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council没有大议会批准不得征税;②no freeman should be arrested,imprisoned,or deprived of his property except by the law of the land除依照法律,不得随意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剥夺其财产;③the Church should possess all its rights,together with freedom of elections教会拥有的权利和选举自由不受侵犯;④London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges伦敦和其它城市应保留其古老的权利和特权;⑤there should be the same weight and measures throughout the country全国应统一度量衡. Although the Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties,it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons,a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king.The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king,keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.尽管长期普遍认为?大宪章?是英国自由的基础,但它只是国王与贵族之间的封建与法律关系,保证教会的自由,限制国王的权力.?大宪章?的精神是限制王权,置王权于封建法律的约束下. 英国议会的起源 In 1258,the barons,under Simon de Montfort,forced Hey Ⅲ and his son Prince Edward to swear to accept the Provisions of Oxford.Later,Hey refused to confirm to the Provisions of Oxford,thus a civil war brake out between the king’s supporters and the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort. 1258年,贵族们在西蒙?德?孟福尔的领导下迫使国王和他的儿子爱德华王子宣誓接受"牛津协定".亨利拒绝批准牛津协定,国王的支持者和西蒙?德?孟福尔领导的封建主组成的军队之间爆发了内战.
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265,Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council,together with two knights from each country and two citizens from each town.,a meeting which has seen as the earliest parliament.It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Common as a parliament. 大议会是当今英国议会的原型.1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各镇有两名市民参加,此次会议被看作是最早的议会.大议会发展到后来演变成议会.分为上议院和下议院
Its main role was to offer advice,not to make decisions.There were still no elections,no parties,and the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 其作用是咨询而非决定,也没有选举和政党.议会的最重要的部分是上议院When Edward III claimed the French Crown but the French refused to recognize,the war broke out. 爱德华三世宣布要继承法国王位,但法国人民拒绝承认,于是引发了百年战争. The Hundred Years’ War with France refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453.The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy of Aquitaine,while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争.战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素.领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国阿奎丹大片的公爵领地有密切关系,随着法国国王势力日增,他们日益渴望占领这片从他们领土内被分割出去的土地.经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关.弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口地,但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王.其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,以及不断觉醒的民族意识.When the war ended,Calais was the only part of France that still in the hands of English. 战争结束的时候只有加来港还被英军占领. Consequences:The expulsion of the English from France is regarded as a blessing for both countries:had they remained,the superior size and wealth of France would certainly have hindered the development of a separate English national identity,while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. 战争的结果:把英国人赶出了法国对两个国家都是幸事:若英国人继续留在法国,那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍英国作为一个独立民族的发展;而法国如被外国势力占领了大量的领土,其民族特性的发展也要长期受阻.
HeyⅤrenewed the war in 1415 and won a crushing victory at Argencourt.He was recognized to the French throne in 1420.After his death,the French,encouraged by Joan of Arc,finally drove the English out of France. 亨利五世在1415年重新发动战争.在阿根科特战役中大胜.他在1420年成为法国国王.亨利死后,法国人民在圣女贞德的鼓舞下,最终把英军驱逐出法国. 黑死病的影响 The Black Death was the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century.It swept through England in the summer of 1348 without warning and,most importantly,without any cure.It reduced England’s population from four million to two million(about one half and one third of the population was killed) by the end of the 14th century. 黑死病是现代名称,指老鼠身上的跳蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的传染性疾病.14世纪传播了到欧洲.1348年夏天横扫全英国,事先毫无预兆,而更重要的是无药可救.英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万. The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching.As a result of the plague,much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour.Landowners tended to change from arable to sheep-farming,which required less labour.The surviving peasants had better bargainning power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour.So some landlords,unable or unwilling to pay higher wages,tried to force peasants back into serfdom.In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace. 黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远.鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏.地主只得把耕地改成对人力需求较少的牧场.幸存的农民处于有利的可以讨价还价的地位,他们从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪.
Chapter 4Transition to the Modern Age 向现代英国的过渡(1455-1688)
1玫瑰战争 The name Wars of the Roses was, in fact, coined by a 19th century novelist Sir Walter Scott.This was a war between the rich and ambitious nobles. 玫瑰战争这个词是19世纪的大作家瓦尔特?斯考特创造的.这是一场富人和野心勃勃的贵族之间的战争.It was referred to these battles between the great House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white,from 1455 to 1485.Although the Wars of the Roses were waged intermittently for thirty years,ordinary people were little affected.Feudalism received its death blow.No less than 80 nobles of royal blood were killed in the wars.The great medieval nobility was much weakened and discredited.The king’s power became supreme. 它是指从1455年到1485年,以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争.虽然玫瑰战争断断续续进行了30年,但普通民众所受影响甚微.封建制度却遭受了致命打击,不少于80位皇室血统的贵族阵亡.中世纪的贵族势力被大大削弱,名誉扫地.至此,国王的权利变得至高无上.
After the wars,king Hey Tudor replaced king Richard Ⅲ to rule England. 玫瑰战争后,亨利?都铎取代了理查德三世统治英国.
亨利八世和英国的宗教改革 Hey Ⅷ was above all responsible for the religious reform of the Church亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的责任者 .There were 3 main causes:①a desire for change and reform in the Church had been growing for many years and now,encouraged by the success of Martin Luther,many people believed its time had come期望教会改革已有多年,现在又受马丁?路德成功的鼓舞,许多人认为时机已到;②the privilege and wealth of the clergy were also resented人们痛恨教职人员的特权和财富;③Hey needs money亨利需要钱.The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Hey VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon because she could not produce a male heir for him.But the Pope refused to annul his marriage.Hey’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings,and past two laws as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以争取离婚而开始,以脱离教皇而告终.亨利八世想与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚因为她没有生下男嗣,但是教皇拒绝了.亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会.1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系.他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院,因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚.1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性.1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号. The English Reformation had 3 important effects:They stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Hey’s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism. 改革的三大影响:亨利的改革强调了君主权力,自然加强了亨利的地位;议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加强;他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会,并希望从天主教转向新教.
伊莉莎白一世和国会 Generally speaking,Elizabeth was able to work with Parliament,but the relationship with Parliament was often turbulent.Parliament wished its customary right of free speech confirmed in writing;and it wanted to be allowed to start discussion of important questions at will,not by invitation.Elizabeth would not permit either thing.Elizabeth treated 5 questions as personal and private.These were her religion,her marriage,her foreign policy,the succession to the throne and her finance. 伊丽莎白能与议会合作,但与议会的关系经常动荡不安.议会希望以书面形式确认议会按惯例已享有的言论自由,也希望能随意地讨论重大问题,而无需经过女王邀请.伊丽莎白一件也未批准.伊丽莎白把五个问题看作是个人问题,那就是她的宗教,婚姻,对外政策,王位的继承和财产. 伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control.Her religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. 伊丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协.她中断了玛丽女王与罗马建立的关系,恢复了她父亲建立的独立的英格兰教会也就是说她保持天主教的教条及做法,但不受教皇控制.她的宗教和解既不被极端的清教徒所接受,也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受.For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.In 1588,the English navy defeated the Spanish Armada.The destruction of the Spanish Armada showed England’ superiority as a naval power.近30年的时间,伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀,从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突.通过她从未具体化的联姻,伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系,因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险.1588年,英国海军击败了西班牙舰队.西班牙无敌舰队的灭亡表明了英国作为海上强国的优势.
英国文艺复兴的特点 In England,the Renaissance began in 1485 and it had 5 characteristics英国的文艺复兴起始与1485年.五个特点:①English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary
Europeans under the influence of the classics英国文化的复兴不全是直接接受古典文化的影响,而更多的是受当时有文艺复兴思想的欧洲人的影响;②England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe作为岛国,英国的社会和政治历史进程在很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家;③Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them.由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现,英国本土文学相当有生气,善于融合外来影响而未被同化;④English Renaissance’s literature is primarily artistic,rather than philosophical and scholarly.⑤The Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的,其次才是哲学的和学术的⑤文艺复兴与英国宗教改革同时发生. 内战及其影响 Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the Parliament developed into the civil war.The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death. 由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权,他与议会的对峙发展成了内战战争开始于1642年8月22日,结束于1651年.最后查尔斯被处死
In 1642,the first English Civil War began between King Charles and Parliament.The king's men were called Cavaliers,and the supporters of Parliament were called Roundheads because of their short haircuts. 1642年,查尔斯一世和议会之间的第一次内战开始.国王的支持者被称为"骑士派";支持议会者因为留短发被称为"圆颅派".
The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution,because the king's opponents were mainly Puritans,and his supporters chiefly Episcopalian and Catholic.It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King,but also a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the Crown.The economic interests of the urban middle classes coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.英国内战又称为清教徒革命.因为国王的敌人主要是清教徒,而支持者主要是天主教派成员和天主教徒.这是议会和国王间的冲突,也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突.城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教(清教)思想吻合.相应地,皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰结合在一起.英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度,而且动摇了欧洲封建统治的基础.英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端. From 1649 to 1658 England was called a Commonwealth.It was ruled first by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector(in 1653,he became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England).从1649年到1658年,英国被称为共和国.由奥利弗?克伦威尔护国主统治(1653年他成为英格兰共和国的护国主). One of Cromwell's first acts was to crush without mercy a rebellion in Ireland,killing all the inhabitants of the towns of Drogheda and Wexford.Another was the suppression of the Levellers, proposed a radical political programme not at all to his taste.克伦威尔的举措之一就是毫不留情地镇压爱尔兰的起义,杀死了德洛莎达和威克斯福两镇的所有居民.另一举措是镇压平均派,原因是他们提出的激进政治方案不合克伦威尔的口味. Other aspects of this period were: establishment of colonies and colonial trade,religious toleration for all,and greater understanding of the economy.这时期其他方面的特点是:建立殖民地和进行殖民贸易;容忍所有宗教;对经济更加了解.The Parliament elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as King Charles II.The Restoration, as it was called,was relatively smooth,and although not a perfect king,Charles II was able to capitalize on government goodwill towards him.Britain prospered under Charles. 1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子从长期流亡地法国回国作国王,称查尔斯二世,从而解决了危机.所谓的王朝复辟相对顺利.尽管查尔斯二世不是完美国王,但他却能利用政府对他的善意.在查尔斯的统治下英国繁荣发展.
In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic.He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies.But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago.So the English politicians rejected James II,and appealed to a Protestant king William of Orange,James's Dutch nephew and the husband of Mary,James's daughter,to invade and take the English throne.William landed at Torbay in 1688 and marched upon London.In England this takeover was relatively smooth,with no bloodshed,nor any execution of the king.This became known as the Glorious Revolution.1685年查尔斯二世去世,由其弟詹姆斯二世继位.詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大,是个天主教徒.他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家.但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了.英国政客反对詹姆斯二世,他们呼吁信奉新教的国王奥兰治亲王威廉入侵英国夺取王位,威廉是詹姆斯的荷兰侄子,也是他的女婿.1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦.这一占领相当顺利,既未流血也未处死国王,所以就称为"光荣革命".
William and Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights which,excluding any Roman Catholic from the succession,confirmed the principle of parliamentary supremacy and guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons.威廉和玛丽共同接受了《权利法案》,此法案剥夺了罗马天主教徒的继承王位的权利,确立了议会权利至高无上的原则,保证了上下两院中的自由言论权.
Chapter 5 Rise and Fall of the British Empire 大英帝国的兴衰(1688-1990)
辉格党人和托利党人These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).Both were known by nicknames:Whigs was a derogatory name for cattle drivers,Tories an Irish word meaning thugs.Loosely speaking,the Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists.The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings.The Whigs were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party,which still bears the nickname today.They controlled English Parliament in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命.都是以绰号命名:辉格是对牧牛人的贬称,而托利在爱尔兰语里是歹徒的意思.泛泛而言,辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权,支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人们.托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权,不愿去除国王的人.辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人结盟组成自由党.托利党是保守党的前身,至今保守党还保留托利党这个绰号.他们于18世纪末19世纪初统领英国议会.Whigs stood for①a reduction in Crown patronage(the power to appoint people to important positions and offices);②sympathy towards Nonconformists(Methodists and other Protestant sects who had broken away from the Church of England);③care for the interests of merchants and bankers.辉格党人主张:①削弱王权(比如任命政府重要官员的权利);②同情非国教教徒(即已脱离国教的卫理公会及其他新教派别);③保护商人和银行家的利益. Tories were traditionalists who wanted to preserve the powers of the monarchy and the Church of England.They disliked the Nonconformists and considered them a threat to Church of England’s influence on the people;they wanted strict maintenance of law and order and were afraid of mob riot;they might agree to some humanitarian reforms,but were certainly against Parliamentary reforms. 托利党人是一批持传统观点的人.
他们主张保留君主和英格兰教会的权力.他们不喜欢非国教教徒,认为他们是对英格兰教会的一大威胁.他们想严格地维护法律和秩序,害怕下层阶级造反.他们并不总赞同改革,特别是坚决反对议会改革,他们只同意某些人道主义改革.
Traditional farming involved the open field village,a system that dated back to the 5th century.There were of course drawbacks:①it wasted land because of fallow fields and land for paths;②it was wasteful of labour and time;livestock farming was difficult and diseases spread quickly on commons.Winter food was rarely enough,so animals were usually killed in autumn and their meat was salted;③the open field system was a barrier to experiments. 传统的农作方式主要是开放式农田的农村,这种制度可追溯到5世纪.当然它也有缺陷:休耕地和道路用地浪费了土地;浪费了劳动力和时间;牧业很难发展,公地上蔓延疾病,冬天粮食不够吃,因此秋天时常常把动物杀掉,腌肉;开放式田地制是搞试验的障碍. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries,the "open-field" system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:①Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;②more vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;③enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns,which rapidly became hopelessly overcrowded.In Ireland and the Scottish Highlands land enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World④a new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. 18世纪末,19世纪初,随着《圈地法》的颁布,传统的“开放田地”制结束.圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪.农业圈地运动的利弊共存:由于大农场兼并了小农场,农场成为越来越大的生产单位;人们消费的蔬菜,牛奶及奶制品越来越多,饮食种类愈加丰富;圈地对佃农而言是场灾难,他们被赶出土地,被迫到城镇找工作,因此城镇很快过于拥挤.在爱尔兰和苏格兰高低,圈地运动导致了大规模的移民,尤其是移民至新大陆;农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立. 工业革命（1780-1830） 选择题
The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 工业革命指的是18世纪末,19世纪初英国工业的机械化,以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化. Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:英国是第一个工业化的国家,原因如下:①Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade.英国地理位置优越,适合参与欧洲和世界贸易;②Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies.International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industrialization.英国社会安定,17世纪后对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增.国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富,他们和那些由于新农业耕作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金.③The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力,使得社会中强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响.④It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports,or from rivers,which could distribute their products.英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流,货物运输便利.⑤Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.英国许多河流不仅用于交通,还提供水力及蒸汽动力.英国也有可用的矿产资源.⑥British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.英国工程师是训练有素的手工艺人.⑦The inventors were respected.They solved practical problems.发明家受人尊重,他们解决了实际难题.⑧Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.很可能得益于政府的“不干涉主义”及“新教工作道德”.⑨England,Scotland,and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.1707年后,英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟,1807年后爱尔兰加入.因此,全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍.⑩The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食,为工厂提供了劳动力,为工业提供了所需的一些原材料.Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution工业革命中一些重大创新:①John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733~约翰凯的飞梭;②James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766~詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机;③Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769~理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机;④Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779~塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机;⑤Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784~爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机;⑥The first steam engine was devised by Thomas Newcomer and the Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the design in 1765.托马斯?纽卡默设计了第一台蒸汽机,苏格兰发明家詹姆斯?瓦特修改并改良了它.1765年发明. Consequences of the industrial Revolution:工业革命的结果①Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;no other country was yet ready to compete with her in industrial production.英国成为了“世界工场”,在工业生产上,没有任何一个其他国家能与之竞争②Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s wealth.城镇迅速兴起,成为国家财富的源泉③Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it.The working men worked and lived in appalling conditions.机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活.工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活④The industrial revolution created the industrial working class,the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.工业革命产生了工人阶级,即无产阶级.后来形成了工会制度. 宪章运动（1836-1848） There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law.1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满. In 1836 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association.They draw up a charter of political demands(a People’s Charter) in 1838,with the intention of presenting it to Parliament.It had six points:the vote for all adult males;voting by secret ballot;equal electoral districts;abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament;payment of members of Parliament;annual Parliaments,with a General Election every June.1836年一群技术工人和小店主组成伦敦工人协会,于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章即?人民宪章?,想把它呈送给议会.宪章内容:所有成年男子都有选举权;进行无记名投票;平等选区;议员选举废除财产资格要求;议员应有报酬;议会年选制,每年六月进行大选.
The Chartists could be roughly divided into two groups:the Moral Force Chartists and the Physical Force Chartists.The former headed by William Lovett wanted to realize their aims by peaceful means(“politics of persuasion”).The latter headed by Feargus O’Connor,wanted to achieve their purpose by violence. 宪章派成员可大致地分为两派:道义派和暴力派.道义派由威廉?洛维特领导,试图通过和平手段实现目标(“政治说服”).暴力派由斐尔格斯?奥廉诺尔领导,试图用暴力达到目的. Results of the Chartist Movement宪章运动的结果:Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership,and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism.The working class still immature,without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory.The Chartist movement was, however,the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems.The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.” 由于领导层的软弱和分裂,由于缺少与工会的协调,宪章运动失败了.当时的工人阶级还未成熟,没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导.但是,宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人阶级运动,引起了对许多严重问题的关注.
篇三：英语国家概况_课文_翻译
第一章 国土与人民
Ⅰ.英国的不同名称及其区域
人们说到英国时常常使用不同的名称:不列颠、大不列颠、英格兰、不列颠群岛、联合王国等。这些名称一样吗?还是有所区别?
严格地讲，不列颠诸岛、大不列颠和英格兰都是地理名称。它们并不是这个国家的正式名称。不列颠诸岛是由两个大岛和几百个小岛组成的。两个大岛是不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛，其中不列颠岛较大，它与爱尔兰岛的北部一北爱尔兰构成联合王国。因此，联合王国的正式国名是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。但一口气说出这么长的国名太费事，因此，人们就说不列颠，联合王国或简单地说UK。这是不列颠岛上的一个国家，首都是伦敦。另外还有一个国家，叫爱尔兰共和国或称爱尔兰，也位于不列颠岛上。它占据了爱尔兰岛的其余部分，在岛的南部。1949年始爱尔兰独立，首都是都柏林。
大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。英格兰面积最大、人口最多，一般说来也最富裕。因此人们常用英格兰指代英国，用英格兰人指代英国人。这有时令苏格兰人和威尔士人不快，他们不认为自己是"英格兰人"，他们有自己的文化，甚至有自己的语言。 英国一直是世界上最重要的国家之一。约一百年前，由于推行帝国主义扩张政策，英国成为一个帝国，这个帝国占有世界上四分之一的人口，四分之一的面积。它不仅在北美，而且在亚洲、非洲和澳洲都有殖民地。但是两次世界大 战大大削弱了英国，英国殖民地接二连三独立，大英帝国逐渐消失，1931年由英联邦所取代。
英联邦是一个自由联合体，由曾经是英国殖民地变为现已独立的国家构成。成员国之间实行经济合作，有一定的贸易协议。英联邦没有特别的权力，是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定。目前( 1991年) ，英联邦有50个成员国。
Ⅱ.英国的地理特征
英国是个岛国，四周是海。它位于欧洲北海岸附近的北大西洋中。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海把英国与欧洲的其他部分隔开。英法之间的英吉利海峡很狭窄，最狭窄的地方叫多佛尔海峡，只有33公里宽。1985年，英法两国政府决定在多佛尔海峡底修建一个隧道，把两个国家连接起来。经过八年的奋斗，这条名为"查诺尔"的海底隧道于1994年5月通车。英国的面积为244，100 平方公里。南北长1000公里，东西最宽阔的地方约为500公里。因此英国的任何地方离海边都不远，海岸资源丰富。英国海岸线很长且拥有优良的深水港。 海上通道延伸到内陆，提供了低廉的运输。
几个世纪以来，英国一直在缓慢地倾斜。西北部缓慢上升，东南部缓慢下沉。英国的北部与西部主要是山地。这种上升在苏格兰西部形成了突起的海滩――山的平地。这种海滩提供了主要的农田、定居点、工业区及通道。东部及东南部主要是低地，是"欧洲大平原"的一部分，有着平坦的土地及肥沃的土壤。尤其是南部及英格兰东海岸有许多良田。
在冰川时代，英国覆盖着大冰块，导致英国壮观的山景，尤其是斯诺多尼亚、湖泊区及苏格兰山地，因此英国拥有平顶的山脉、瀑布流经的山谷、带状湖、平坦的谷底、陡峭的谷倒、冰砾土及沃土。
1.英格兰
英格兰占了大不列颠岛南部的绝大部分面积。英格兰西面是威尔士，北面是苏格兰。面积为130，000平方公里，占整个岛的60%。除了塞汶河谷及柴郡――兰开郡平原(中心为利物浦)外，其西南部和西部主要是高原，也有起伏的平原、丘陵地及少数沼泽地，但主要是高原。从北中部延伸至苏格兰边境的奔宁山脉是主要山脉。但英格兰的最高峰斯加非尔峰(978米)却位于西北部的湖泊区。英格兰东部主要是开阔的可耕种平原，此平原的海岸沼泽地和奔宁山脉之间变成一条狭窄的走廊(约克谷)，在诺桑伯兰郡则变成很窄的海岸带。
2.苏格兰
苏格兰面积为78，760平方公里。位于大不列颠岛北部，拥有众多的山脉、湖泊及岛屿。它有三大自然区:北部山地、中部低地及南部高地。北部山地 (300――1，200多米)是一片荒芜而多石的高原，有弯曲的海岸线，西面尤其如此。本奈维斯山海拔1，343米，英国的最高峰就在此地。山地西部及赫布里底群岛 风景迷人。狭长的海湾与荒山交错，一些内海上的农场只有坐小船才能到达。中部低地，主要由福斯和克莱德谷、煤矿和铁矿区及奶牛牧场组成。中部是苏格兰主要的工业区，人口最为稠密，是苏格兰最重要的地区。南部高地是起伏的沼泽地(多在240-600米之间)，被众多小而肥沃的河谷所分割。苏格兰有800座岛屿，包括奥克尼群岛，设德兰群岛及赫布里底群岛，此外还有几百个湖泊。爱丁堡是苏格兰的首府。
3.威尔士
威尔士位于大不列颠岛的西部，面积为20，761平方公里，占整个岛的近 9%。威尔士大部分地区是山。山脉沿海陡峭耸起，而山顶却相当平坦。威尔士6%为森林覆盖，大部分乡村是草原牧场――养牛养羊，只有12%的可耕地。威尔士形成一个山区，但周边是狭窄的低地，最宽之处是沿英格兰边境和南海岸。山地高度在180米到600米之间，北面多岩石，南面有煤。西北部的斯诺多尼亚山(1085米)是威尔士的最高点。威尔士首府是加的夫。
4.北爱尔兰是联合王国的第四个所属区域。它占据爱尔兰北部五分之一的面积――14，147平方公里。北爱尔兰北部海岸线荒芜多石，并有几处深陷的回地。东北部地区的安特里尔郡多高地，而向东南部逐渐变成了洛尼格盆地所在的中央低地。贝尔法斯特是北爱尔兰的首都。
Ⅲ.河流和湖泊
英国的河流冬天不结冰。河流在国民经济中起着重要作用。伦敦、利物浦和格拉斯哥这些大港口全都通过河流与海洋连接在一起。此外，东海岸的Tweed河、Tyne河、蒂斯河、泰晤士河都面对着欧洲大陆上的北海各港口，距离富饶的渔区也很近。而西海岸的克莱德河、默西河和塞汶河把原材料运到繁忙的内陆工业城市。英国的河流并不很长，最长的塞汶河也只有338公里长。它发源于威尔士中部，河道呈半圆形流经英格兰中西部，注入布里斯托尔海峡。第二大河，也是英国最重要的河是泰晤士河，全长336公里。发源于英格兰西南部的科茨沃耳德山，流经英格兰中部到达伦敦，注入北海。泰晤士河流速相当慢，这对水路运输极为有利。海轮可以沿着此河远至伦敦，而小船则可再上溯138公里。牛津也在泰晤士河上。克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。它发源于邓弗里斯山，全长171公里，流经格拉斯哥，注入克莱德河湾，是重要的商业水路航道。
英国有许多湖泊，尤其是苏格兰北部、英格兰西北部的湖泊区及威尔士北部更是如此。但是，英国最大的湖是北爱尔兰的洛尼格湖，面积为396平方公里。湖泊区是英国最吸引人的旅游名胜之一，它以荒野和美丽的景色及15个湖而名扬天下。其中较大的湖有汶德密湖、鄂思水湖、德文水湖和柯尼斯顿水湖。湖区也是湖畔诗人的家。例如19世纪的威廉.华兹华斯，塞缪尔.泰勒.柯勒律治和罗伯特.骚塞。
Ⅳ.气候
1.海洋性气候
当我们说到气候时，我们指的是某个地方数年时间里的平均天气状况，而非指某个地方每天的天气状况。尽管英国人似乎总在抱怨天气下雨、变化无常、不可预测，但实际上英国的气候相当宜人，是海洋性气候――冬季温和不冷、夏季凉爽不热，全年有稳定的降雨量。气温变化小，北方冬季平均气温是摄氏4－6度，南方夏季为12-17度。因此即使在冬天，在开阔的乡村、公园和房屋周围，也能看见大片的绿草。
2.影响英国气候的因素
英国是个位于北纬50-60度之间的岛国，甚至比中国的黑龙江的最北端还要靠北。与同
一纬度的其他国家相比，英国的气候最温和，主要受以下三个因素的影响。
(1)四周的海水使季节差异有所平衡、冬暖夏凉。因为海洋的加热和降温作用是相对缓慢的，因此在冬季带来暖气，夏季带来凉气。
(2)温暖湿润的西南风吹遍全国，一年四季如此，使气温温和。
(3)北大西洋暖流流经大不列颠群岛西海岸并使其温和。
因为英国具有典型的海洋性气候，因此气候特点为气候凉爽，多云，多阵雨。气候每天都在变，很难预测。有时甚至同一个人在同一天可以经历四季。 早上是天气晴朗的春天，一两个小时后，乌云不知从哪里跑出来，大雨倾盆而下。到了中午，气温下降约8度，像寒冷的冬天。傍晚时分，天空晴朗，阳光普照，天黑前的一两个小时里又是夏天。据说天气的不确定对英国人的性格有很大影响，例如使他们谨慎行事。当你看到一个英国人在阳光灿烂的早上穿着雨衣拿着雨伞出门时，你可能会笑话他。但是更经常的是一会儿就下起了毛毛细雨，当然你未必需要雨伞。
3.降雨量
英国全年有稳定的降雨量。平均年降雨量为1000多毫米。在东部和南部海岸，平均降雨量为750－1250毫米，只有东南部的少数地区降雨量不足750毫米。在西部，降雨量可达1250-2000毫米，西北部一些地区则超过2000毫米。从大西洋吹来的暖流给整个英国一年四季带来暖湿空气。在西部，暖流遇到高地就上升变冷，导致了大量的降雨。而东部降雨不多是因为西来的空气爬过高地后，就变暖变干，雨水就不多了。
英国降雨量的分布使得北部和西部雨量过多，而南部和东部有所缺乏。因此，在像威尔士中部湖区、苏格兰高地这样的山区就需修建水库储水，然后送到人口更多的低地工业区。
4.自然灾难
通常说来，英国的气候宜人而稳定不变，酷热严寒、干旱及漫长的雨季都很少见。据估计英国人均日降雨量为3-6立方米，远远超过实际需要，但还是有些问题。有时连续几个月干旱，有时降雨太多引起水灾。雾、烟雾、霜冻及大风时常给农作物及人们的生活造成较大损害。在1952年持续四天的伦敦烟雾(由烟、脏物和雾混合而成的不健康的空气)中所含的二氧化硫，使4000人死亡或生命垂危。从那时起，英国大多数城市实行了"清洁空气区"，根据此规定，工厂和家庭只许燃烧无烟燃料。
尽管英国没有飓风――像台风、龙卷风之类速度极快的强风，许多地区也易遭受强风的袭击，冬天尤其如此。大风会导致洪水、船舶失事及人员伤亡。
Ⅴ.人口与民族
英国人口为57，411，000(1990年)。对于这样小的国家而言，人口是很多了。每平方公里平均237人，是人口稠密的国家，分布也不均匀。90%是城镇人口，只有10%是农村人口，也就是说大多数人住在城镇，只有少数人住在农村。另一方面，也有相当多大片的荒凉山区，尤其是苏格兰北部，几乎无人居住。
大多数人口集中在英格兰，在约5700万人口中有4700万住在英格兰。1400万人住在伦敦和英格兰东南部。苏格兰有500万人口，大多数住在中部低地。威尔士则不到300万。北爱尔兰有150万，其中50万住在贝尔法斯特。
英国人口主要由以下民族组成:英格兰人(81.5%)，苏格兰人(9.6%)，威尔士人(1.9%)，爱尔兰人(2.4%)，北爱尔兰人(1.8%)和其他一些民族(2.8%)。
现在英国人比以往更喜欢迁移。北方人迁到南方，南方人和东盎格鲁人迁到北方。许多苏格兰人、威尔士人和爱尔兰人来到英格兰生活。他们相互接受彼此的生活方式，这使人们更难区分英国不同地区的民族。但是不同地区之间还是存在性格和语言上的差异。事实上在一些地区，人们想方设法保护自己的语言和文化。
1.英格兰人
英格兰人是盎格鲁－撒克逊人，而苏格兰人、威尔士人和爱尔兰人却是凯尔特人。凯尔特人原是古代的一些部落，最早在德国，后移居到法国、西班牙和英国。他们于公元前700年后到达英国。其中一支叫不列颠人的部落，是英国人的祖宗。后来罗马人征服了他们。在5世纪，罗马帝国衰落，德国的盎格鲁人和撒克逊人入侵并征服了英国。德国征服者用他们的名字给英格兰取名为"盎格兰"。9世纪时，丹麦人即"北欧海盗"入侵英国。1066年诺曼法国人入侵。正是诺曼征服者与战败的盎格鲁－撒克逊人之间的结合，才产生了英国人和英语言，今天大多数英国人的名字还保留着祖先的遗迹。最普通的英国人名字 "Smith"是由德国人名字"Schmidt"而来，一些英国家庭有着诺曼法国人的名字，如Daicy、Beaufor和Beauchamp。估计英格兰和威尔士有800，000人叫Smith。
英国人的地区语言之间有许多差异。主要区别是在南英格兰和北英格兰之间。总体而言，南方人讲的英语接近BBC英语。除了伦敦东区区佬之外，他们都没有特别的音调。伦敦东区区佬是土生土长的伦敦人。伦敦东区人把元音[ei]发成[ai]，他们把"wait"，"late"，"tray"念成"white"，"light"和"try"。他们还把"have"念成"ave"。
北英格兰的方言比南英格兰的"更宽"。显著的发音变化是北方人在发"love" ，"bus"，"mother"，"much"这些词时，把这些词中的元音[Λ]发成[uJ，而把 "France"，"dance"和"chance"之中的元音[a:]发成[εe]。一些北方人还省略冠词the及所有格"my"，"your"和"their"等等。
2.威尔士人
威尔士人的祖先是古代不列颠部落人。他们在盎格鲁-撒克逊人入侵时，逃到了威尔士的荒山中建立栖身之处。威尔士的凯尔特人保护了他们的自由长达1000年，直到1536年才被英格兰人征服。如今约有近四分之一的威尔士人把威尔士语当作第一语言，有百分之一的人只讲威尔士语。威尔士语是一种古老的凯尔特语言。1965年它与英语一起被确认为威尔士的官方语言。很多小学生都得学威尔士语。威尔士的大多数公共告示牌，都使用英语和威尔士语。威尔士语不同于英语，威尔士名字也不同于英语名字。以"Ll"开头的名字都是威尔士人的，如Llewllyn，Lloyd和Llyn，其他一些常见的威尔士名字有Lewis，Davies，Morgan，Edwards。
威尔士人感情丰富，兴高采烈，热爱音乐，为自己的过去深感自豪。一年中他们有称之为艺术年会的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在这些时候，举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、歌唱和艺术比赛。他们通过这种方式使威尔士语言及文化保持活力。
3.苏格兰人
一些德国盎格鲁人在苏格兰低地和英格兰之间的边疆地定居，但他们从未入侵山地，苏格兰人不受侵扰地住在山地、峡谷和岛屿上。苏格兰人为从未被英格兰人征服过深感骄傲。许多苏格兰人的名字以M'，Mc或Mac开头，其意思在苏格兰人古老的凯尔特语--盖尔语中是"某人的儿子"。尽管至今在山地和西部岛屿还能听到盖尔语，但英语却遍及全苏格兰，因为大多数人并非凯尔特人的子孙，而苏格兰人的孩子必须上讲英语的中学。
尽管苏格兰人被说成严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但今天去苏格兰参观的大多数人都留下这样的印象:他们好客、大方且友好。
4.爱尔兰人
数百年前，苏格兰人和英国新教徒被送到北爱尔兰居住。从那时起，英国新教徒和罗马天主教徒之间一直不和。新教徒是占支配地位的多数，罗马天主教徒要求得到更多的社会、政治及经济权利。英国政府和爱尔兰政府现共同致力于实现北爱尔兰和平。
爱尔兰语是一种盖尔语。它是爱尔兰共和国的第一官方语言，而英语是第二官方语言。爱尔兰人以其魅力和活泼以及爱尔兰姑娘的美貌而著名。
5.移民
二战以来约有300万人来到英国居住和工作。移民主要来自西印度群岛、印度和巴基斯坦。对他们来说，要找一份体面的工作和合适的地方居住是不容易的。尽管有法律保护他们免受不公平待遇，但这些法律却并不总是有效。有些雇主、房东、俱乐部业主歧视移民。通常有色移民不得不从事报酬最低的工作，如果有失业，他们总是第一批被解雇的人。
第二章 英国的起源
Ⅰ.早期的居民(公元前5000年--公元前55年)
不列颠原先是欧洲大陆的一部分。7000年前的冰川时代结束时，融冰淹没了低地，形成了英吉利海峡和北海，把不列颠变成了岛屿。
1.伊比利亚人
人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利亚人。约在公元前3000年的新石器时代，这些身矮、肤黑、头长的人们来到英国，很可能来自伊比利亚半岛，即现在的西班牙。他们是些饲养动物、种植庄稼的农民。在威尔特郡和多塞特郡白精干垩地带发现的狭长古墓多数是他们的公共墓冢。
更为引人注目的是那些圆形石结构，其中最重要的是在威尔特郡发现的巨石阵。巨石阵建于公元前2000年前，准确的修建原因无从了解，但肯定具有宗教和政治意义。尽管流行神话总把巫师们与巨石阵联系起来，但巫师却是后来才到的凯(克)尔特人的祭司。
2.宽口陶器人
约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。这一种族得名于他们所用的特殊铃形宽口饮酒容器，这种陶器是陪葬品，分别埋在单个墓穴里，墓的主人呈蹲伏姿势。他们还带来了制陶工艺、制造青铜工具的技术及单个安葬的习俗。他们形成了自己的农耕社会并在山上建堡垒。这些堡垒成了小型的城堡。多塞特郡的梅登城堡是最好的实例之一。
3.克(凯)尔特人
克(凯)尔特人比先前抵达的种族更高，是漂亮，他们于公元前700年迁入并于此后不断迁居到此岛，直至罗马人入侵。最初他们可能来自东欧及中欧，即现在的法国、比利时和德国南部。他们的入侵有三次高潮。
第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。第二次高潮是约公元前400年始布立吞(不列颠)人的抵达。然后是约公元前150年贝尔盖人的到达。克(凯)尔特人并未杀绝伊比利亚人，而是把其中一些赶到北部和西部，把其余的人用作奴隶。最后，两个种族在这个国家的不同地区有了程度不同的混合。
贝尔盖人是克(凯)尔特部落中最勤奋、最精力充沛的。最强大的酋长之一是卡西弗洛诺斯--卡诺比利诺斯的叔叔，即莎士比亚剧本中的辛白林。他统治了泰晤士河北部的大片地区，在现在的哈福德郡、伯金汉郡和伯克郡。
克(凯)尔特人是技艺熟练的农民。他们会从沼泽地排水，并用木头和树条修建房屋，房屋带有抗风雨的泥层。他们还是铁匠。克(凯)尔特人是山地苏格兰人，爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先，他们的语言是威尔士语和盖尔语的基础。
克(凯)尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教。德鲁伊德(智者、占星家和占卜者)在月光下的林子里拜神并举行祭礼仪式。有证据表明，他们把人当祭品献给神，有时是单个人作祭品，有时是把一群人放在大柳条笼里当祭品。
Ⅱ.罗马人统治时期的英国(公元前55年--公元410年)
有记载的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。
伟大的罗马将军裘利斯.凯撒，于公元前55年第一次入侵英国。部分原因是为获取有关
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《英语国家概况》出自：百味书屋
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